Reproductive Health Class 12 Notes

Contraception refers to the deliberate prevention of pregnancy using various methods. An ideal contraceptive should be user-friendly, reversible, have no or minimal side effects, and should not interfere with sexual desire or the menstrual cycle.

Barrier Methods

• Male condom (nathha) — covers the penis during intercourse; also protects against STDs.
• Female condom — inserted into the vagina before intercourse.
• Diaphragm and cervical cap — inserted into the vagina to cover the cervix and block sperm entry.
• Jelly, cream or foam — chemical barriers that kill or immobilize sperm.

Intra-Uterine Devices (IUDs)

• Cu-T — copper ions are spermicidal and phagocytic to sperm, and inhibit motility. Creates a toxic environment in the uterus.
• Hormonal IUDs (e.g. Progesterone-releasing) suppress endometrial development and make cervical mucus hostile to sperm.
• Multiload 375 — releases copper ions that have a long-term local effect on the uterus; effective for 5+ years.

Hormonal Methods

• Oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) — combined pills contain synthetic estrogen and progestogen; they inhibit ovulation by suppressing FSH and LH, and alter the endometrium and cervical mucus.
• Saheli — a once-a-week oral pill developed by CDRI, Lucknow, containing centchroman (non-steroidal); it is a highly effective, non-steroidal, once-a-week pill with minimal side effects.
• Injectable and implantable contraceptives — contain long-acting progestogens; suppress ovulation for weeks to months.

Natural Methods

• Periodic abstinence (rhythm method) — avoiding intercourse during the fertile window (days 8–20 of a 28-day cycle).
• Coitus interruptus (withdrawal) — removing the penis before ejaculation; unreliable.
• Lactational amenorrhea — absence of menstruation during prolonged breastfeeding; partially protective but not fully reliable.

Surgical Methods (Sterilization)

• Vasectomy — cutting and sealing the vas deferens in males; prevents sperm from entering the ejaculate.
• Tubectomy — cutting and sealing the fallopian tubes in females; prevents the ovum from reaching the uterus.
• Both methods are generally irreversible and should be chosen after careful consideration.

• Symptoms may include urethritis, genital sores, rashes, pain during urination and abnormal discharge.
• STDs can cause infertility, pelvic inflammatory disease (PID), cancer and ectopic pregnancy if untreated.
• HIV cannot be transmitted by casual contact (shaking hands, sharing food, mosquito bites) — only through body fluids.
• Prevention: avoid unprotected sex, use condoms, limit sexual partners, get regular checkups, and avoid sharing needles.

ART Techniques

• IVF-ET (In Vitro Fertilization — Embryo Transfer): Oocyte collected from the ovary, fertilized in the lab, and embryo transferred to the uterus (the 'test-tube baby' procedure).
• ZIFT (Zygote Intra-Fallopian Transfer): The zygote (up to 8 cells) is placed into the fallopian tube, not the uterus.
• IUT (Intra-Uterine Transfer): Embryo at the 8+ cell stage is directly transferred into the uterus.
• GIFT (Gamete Intra-Fallopian Transfer): An ovum is placed into the fallopian tube along with sperm for in vivo fertilization.
• ICSI (Intra-Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection): A single sperm is directly injected into the oocyte — used for severe male infertility.
• AI (Artificial Insemination): Semen is collected and injected directly into the vagina or uterus (IUI — Intra-Uterine Insemination) when the male partner has a low sperm count.

Amniocentesis is a prenatal diagnostic technique in which a small amount of amniotic fluid is withdrawn from the amniotic sac and analysed for chromosomal abnormalities (e.g. Down syndrome) and genetic disorders. It is performed around 14–16 weeks of pregnancy. However, amniocentesis is banned in India for sex determination to prevent female foeticide — the Pre-Conception and Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques (PCPNDT) Act 1994 makes it a punishable offence to reveal the sex of the fetus.

Sex education is crucial for creating awareness about reproductive health, STD prevention, contraception and the emotional aspects of growing up. It helps dispel myths and misconceptions, and empowers adolescents to make informed decisions about their reproductive health.

Example: A couple wishes to delay pregnancy by 2–3 years. Suggest three different contraception methods they could use, and state which one also protects against STDs.

Solution: (1) Oral contraceptive pill (combined OCP) — taken daily, inhibits ovulation, highly effective. (2) Cu-T IUD — inserted once, effective for 5+ years, copper ions are spermicidal. (3) Male condom — used during intercourse, also provides a physical barrier against STDs. Among these, only the condom protects against STDs in addition to preventing pregnancy.

Example: Explain why Saheli is considered a better contraceptive option for many women compared to combined oral contraceptive pills.

Solution: Saheli is a non-steroidal, once-a-week oral pill developed by CDRI, Lucknow, containing centchroman. Unlike combined OCPs (which contain synthetic estrogen and progestogen and must be taken daily), Saheli has fewer hormonal side effects, requires less frequent dosing, and does not contain steroids. It works by altering the endometrium and making cervical mucus hostile to sperm. Its simplicity and lower side-effect profile make it a preferred option.

Exercises (NCERT)

1. 1
   What do you think is the significance of reproductive health in a society?
2. 2
   Suggest the aspects of reproductive health which need to be given special attention in the present scenario.
3. 3
   Is sex education necessary in schools? Why?
4. 4
   Do you think that reproductive health in our country has improved in the past 50 years? If yes, mention a few areas of improvement.
5. 5
   What are the suggested reasons for the population explosion?
6. 6
   Briefly explain the contraceptive methods.
7. 7
   What are the major reasons for infertility?
8. 8
   Describe the technique of IVF.
9. 9
   What is ZIFT? How is it different from GIFT?
10. 10
    What is amniocentesis? Why is it misused?
11. 11
    What is MTP? Why was it legalised?
12. 12
    What are the goals of the Reproductive and Child Health (RCH) programme?

Answers at a glance

1. 1
   Reproductive health means total well-being in physical, emotional, behavioural and social aspects of reproduction; it is essential for a healthy society.
2. 2
   In the present scenario, attention is needed on family planning, prevention of STDs, adolescent health, female foeticide and infertility treatment.
3. 3
   Yes; sex education gives correct information about reproduction and prevents myths, STDs and unsafe practices.
4. 4
   Yes — there is better awareness, more contraception, reduced maternal and infant mortality and improved medical facilities.
5. 5
   Reasons for population explosion: decline in the death rate, better medical facilities, and a high birth rate due to illiteracy and traditional beliefs.
6. 6
   Contraceptive methods include natural methods, barrier methods, IUDs, hormonal methods, surgical methods and emergency contraception.
7. 7
   Infertility may be due to physical, congenital, immunological or psychological causes, or problems in the male/female reproductive systems.
8. 8
   IVF (in-vitro fertilisation): the ovum is fertilised outside the body and the embryo (up to 8 blastomeres) is transferred to the fallopian tube or uterus.
9. 9
   ZIFT: zygote or early embryo (up to 8 blastomeres) is transferred into the fallopian tube. GIFT: an ovum from a donor is transferred into the fallopian tube of another female.
10. 10
    Amniocentesis is the analysis of amniotic fluid to detect genetic disorders; it is misused for female foeticide.
11. 11
    MTP (medical termination of pregnancy) is the intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy; it was legalised to reduce unsafe abortions and maternal mortality.
12. 12
    RCH goals: better reproductive health, birth control, safe motherhood and child survival.

MCQ Questions

2 Mark Questions

1. 1
   Define reproductive health.
2. 2
   What is the lactational amenorrhea method?
3. 3
   Name two copper-releasing IUDs.
4. 4
   Differentiate between ZIFT and GIFT.
5. 5
   What is amniocentesis? Why is it misused?

3 Mark Questions

1. 1
   Explain any three barrier methods of contraception.
2. 2
   Describe the surgical methods of contraception.
3. 3
   What is MTP? Why was it legalised?
4. 4
   Describe the causes and treatment of infertility.
5. 5
   What are the goals of the RCH programme?

5 Mark Questions

1. 1
   Discuss the various methods of contraception with examples.
2. 2
   Explain the assisted reproductive technologies (ART) used to treat infertility.